Leadership Development - Journal Articles

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Academic journals often feature articles on leadership development or an aspect therein. This page attempts to categorize a number of these. Please send us references of articles you would like to see in this section.

• Alimo-Metcalfe, B. (1998). 360 degree feedback and leadership development. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 6(1), 35-44.

If we had to identify the major areas of growth in relation to techniques for supporting leadership development, it would have to include use of 360 degree feedback. At two recent US conferences (The 24th International Congress on Assessment Centre Methods, May 1996, held in Washington, DC, and the First Annual Leadership Development Conference held in October 1996 in Boston), dedicated to presentations by researchers and practitioners on the subject of leadership assessment and development, the topic of multi-rater or multi-source feedback, as it is also known, formed a key component. This paper will outline some of the reasons why this is the case, and some of the research findings that have emerged in the last few years including issues relating to gender and perceptions of leadership. It will also describe how the author has been involved in introducing 360 degree feedback processes in several public sector organizations in the UK, together with lessons that have emerged. (Source: journal abstract)

• Arbaugh, J. (2006). Introduction: Leadership Development: Micro, Macro, or Both? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5 (4), 524-525.

The article discusses the topic of leadership in management education and the evolution process that it is currently in. Several book reviews touch upon the subject in the current issue, including "The Future of Leadership Development" by John Ballard. In the book, the author argues that the level-of-analysis is one of the most central questions to the development of leadership. The book also allows for further research into the topic as it states that the real definition of leadership has yet to be discovered.

• Atwater, L. E., Dionne, S. D., Avolio, B., Camobreco, J. F., & Lau, A. W. (1999). A longitudinal study of the leadership development process: Individual differences predicting leader effectiveness. Human Relations, 52(12), 1543-1562.

Tracked the leadership emergence and development of 236 undergraduate male cadets from matriculation through graduation at a military college. Measures of cognitive ability, conscientiousness, self-esteem, hardiness (stress tolerance), moral reasoning, physical fitness and prior influence experiences were collected from each S. Cognitive ability, physical fitness, prior influence experiences, and self-esteem measured in Yr 1 were relevant to predicting those who assumed formal leadership positions in Yr 4. Physical fitness and prior influence experiences measured when Ss entered the college predicted leader effectiveness rated in their fourth year. Stress tolerance and moral reasoning levels did not predict leader emergence or effectiveness, though the set of individual difference measures significantly predicted emergence and effectiveness. Physical fitness levels and moral reasoning increased over time for all Ss, although, levels of self-esteem and stress tolerance did not increase over time. It is concluded that leadership effectiveness and emergence could be predicted from early measures of individual differences. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Bennett, S. M., & Shayner, J. A. (1988). The role of senior administrators in women's leadership development. New Directions for Student Services, No 44: 27-38.

Discusses issues in the development of leadership potential among women (LPW) in higher education. Topics considered include the rationale for developing LPW, the role of senior administrators in LPW development, and the influence of administrators' gender on their development role. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Bracken, D. (2004). The future of leadership development. Personnel Psychology, 57(2), 514-517.

Reviews the book, “The Future of Leadership Development,” edited by Susan E. Murphy and Ronald E. Riggio (see record 2003-07152-000). This book is the product of the eleventh Annual Kravis de-Roulet Conference in 2001. The editors have done an admirable job of trying to bring a semblance of cohesiveness to this array of chapters by clustering them into subsections and by encouraging a fair amount of cross-referencing in many of the chapters. But to say this collection is eclectic doesn't quite do it justice. On one hand, this wide diversity in content could mean that there is going to be a nugget in here for most students and practitioners in the field of leader or leadership development, and, indeed, some sections were very interesting and thought provoking. This book suffers from including only academicians as authors, with the lone exception of one author from the Center for Creative Leadership. (Source: journal abstract)

• Bradley, J. P., Nicol, A. A. M., Charbonneau, D., & Meyer, J. P. (2002). Personality correlates of leadership development in

Canadian Forces officer candidates. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 34(2), 92-103.

This study investigated the relationship between personality and leadership development in a sample of Canadian Forces officer candidates. At Time 1, personality assessments were obtained from candidates, interviewers, and references at various Canadian Forces Recruiting Centres. Six to nine months later at Time 2, 174 military officer candidates were evaluated by instructors and peers on various aspects of the Basic Officer Training Course (BOTC). Results revealed that BOTC final grade and instructors' ratings of leadership were predicted by self-ratings of the Locus of control factor and its subordinate trait, internal control. Also, the references' ratings of the Surgency factor and its subordinate trait, dominance, predicted the BOTC final grade and ratings of leadership. Four years later at Time 3, we examined the extent to which self-ratings of personality obtained at Time 1 predicted leadership performance and perceptions of leadership styles. Dominance, energy level, and internal control predict ed some leadership criteria, with dominance predicting the most. Overall, these results indicate that measures of personality are associated with leadership development in the military. (Source: PsycINFO Database)

• Burgoyne, J., & Turnbull, K. (2006). Towards Best or Better Practice in Corporate Leadership Development: Operational Issues in Mode 2 and Design Science research. British Journal of Management, 17 (4), 303-316.

The research reported here was part of a UK government initiative to improve management and leadership capability. Corporate leadership development was one element of this initiative. The researchers, also the authors of this paper, were tasked with developing a best practice guide in leadership development. The aim was to establish current best UK corporate practice in order to inform similar organizations striving to improve their approach to leadership development. The aim of this paper is to present the findings of this inquiry as an example of Mode 2 research, i. e. That which is co-produced with practitioners in a rigorous yet actionable way. The paper addresses operational issues by exploring the tensions inherent in Mode 2 research and makes some additions to previous literature on conducting Mode 2 research. It introduces the notion of technological rules derived from the concept of management research as design science, which enables the authors to articulate the way in which output can be developed in a form readily acceptable to end users of Mode 2 research. Actionable research products and accompanying dissemination issues are proposed as central operational concerns for Mode 2 research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cacioppe, R. (1998). An integrated model and approach for the design of effective leadership development programs. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 19(1), 44.

Leadership has been a major topic in management and business literature over the last few years. The rapid changes in business, technology, political and social factors has required the development of effective leadership skills. As a result leadership development programs have become an increasing priority for business and government organizations. This article puts forward an integrated model for leadership development. The major focus of this model is to develop leadership competencies which directly contribute to the strategic imperatives of the business. In addition, it describes the key elements that contribute to a successful leadership experience such as changing mindsets, a global focus, personal development and improved business and leadership skills. Finally, the most widely used leadership methods and processes are covered under three major themes; contributing to the strategic business direction, building leadership and team skills, and self-development. The ideas put forward in this paper provide senior managers and human resource professionals with an integrated and comprehensive framework to plan and build a leadership development program in their organization. (Source: journal abstract)

• Cacioppe, R. (1998). Leaders developing leaders: An effective way to enhance leadership development programs. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 19(4), 194.

The purpose of this article is to examine how senior leaders in organizations can play a greater role in the development of leadership within their organizations. Innovative "leaders developing leaders" programs in PepsiCo, General Electric and Shell are described as examples of tangible and effective ways that can be used for successful leadership development which can also contribute to strategic change and business profitability. Suggestions and various options to incorporate senior executive involvement in leadership development programs are put forward as well as factors that need to be considered when first implementing this approach. At a time when leadership development is recognized as a vital ingredient for organization success, the involvement of senior leaders in the teaching and learning of future leaders has been shown to be a powerful and effective tool. (Source: journal abstract)

• Charon, L. d. (2003). A transformational leadership development program: Jungian psychological types in dynamic flux. Organization Development Journal, 21(3), 9.

This article synthesizes the lore of Jungian theory with the contemporary principles of transformational leadership. Based on this theoretical alignment, individuals are inherently prepared to meet only half of the requirements for effective leadership. The other half should be attained through leader training. (Source: journal abstract)

• Collins, D., Holton, E. (2004). The effectiveness of managerial leadership development programs: A meta-analysis of studies from 1982 to 2001. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 15(2), 217-248.

Eighty-three studies from 1982 to 2001 with formal training interventions were integrated via meta-analytic techniques to determine the effectiveness of interventions in their enhancement of performance, knowledge, and expertise at the individual, team or group, or organizational level. The studies were separated by research design, with the outcome measure of the intervention as the unit of analysis. The effect size for knowledge outcomes ranged from .96 to 1.37; expertise outcomes from .35 to 1.01; and system outcomes averaged .39. Interventions with knowledge outcomes were found to be more effective than in the Burke and Day (1986) meta-analysis, with the most effective interventions using a single group pretest-posttest research design. Methodological and conceptual differences in Burke and Day's meta-analysis on the effectiveness of managerial training make historical comparisons risky. The data suggest that practitioners can attain substantial improvements in both knowledge and skills if sufficient front-end analysis is conducted to assure that the right development is offered to the right leaders. (Source: journal abstract)

• Cooper, S. E., & Smirga, W. G. (1992). Developing and marketing tomorrow's leaders in today's colleges. Journal of College Student Development, 33(3), 275-277.

Describes a leadership development program for college students. The program permits students to interact with campus leaders, network with other students, develop leadership skills, and create a leadership development transcript to show future employers. An evaluative survey of 96 participants found that reactions to the program were positive. (Source: PsycINFO Database)

• Conger, J., Toegel, G. (2003). Action learning and multi-rater feedback as leadership development interventions: Popular but poorly deployed. Journal of Change Management, 3(4), 332-348.

Action learning and multi-rater feedback are today among the most widely used interventions for leadership development. Despite their popularity, the authors believe that both have been poorly deployed. For example, while grounded in real company issues, action-learning formats often fail to provide the multiple learning experiences necessary to develop complex knowledge. Inadequate opportunities to reflect on learning, poor facilitation, and a failure to follow up on project outcomes seriously hamper this intervention's potential to develop leadership talent. Similar shortcomings apply to the deployment of multi-rater feedback. For example, when its use is stretched and different purposes, such as performance measurement, are coupled with it, or when its quantitative aspects are emphasized and the qualitative ones neglected, or when it is conceptualized as a single event rather than as an enduring system, the actual capabilities of multi-rater feedback are limited. Both interventions require far more attention and thoughtful application if they are to realize their potential to develop leadership talent. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Davies, G., Smith, M., & Twigger, W. (1991). Leading People: A Model of Choice and Fate for Leadership Development. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 12(1), 7.

A psychological understanding of the leadership process is needed as opposed to behavioral-contingency or power and influence models. In working with managers on the leadership development programs, a framework is used in which leadership is defined as a relationship in which one person accepts responsibility for the fate of self and others in relation to achieving a task. There are 3 major issues in this definition that offer 3 possible levels of engagement within a group: 1. acceptance of responsibility for the task, 2. acceptance of responsibility for one's own fate and actions, and 3. acceptance of responsibility for the fate of others. There are variations in the scope and impact of these responsibilities, but they each weigh upon people to some degree. Both as individuals and groups in organizations, people are ceaselessly, awarely and unawarely, accepting, rejecting, or avoiding these responsibilities. As one watches individuals and groups become more aware of how they make these choices, one sees leadership develop. (Source: journal abstract)

• Day, D. (2000) Leadership development: A review in context. Leadership Quarterly, 11 (4), 581-613.

Examines the field of leadership development through 3 contextual lenses: (1) understanding the difference between leader development and leadership development (conceptual context); (2) reviewing how state-of-the-art development is being conducted in the context of ongoing organizational work (practice context); and (3) summarizing previous research that has implications for leadership development (research context). The overall purpose is to bridge the practice and science of leadership development by showing the importance of building both human and social capital in organizations. Specific practices that are reviewed included 360 degree feedback and executive coaching, mentoring and networking, and job assignments and action learning. Practices and research are framed in terms of a general need to link leader development, which is primarily based on enhancing human capital, with leadership development that emphasizes the creation of social capital in organizations. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Dearborn, K. (2002). Studies in emotional intelligence redefine our approach to leadership development. Public Personnel Management, 31(4), 523-530.

This article references the work of Daniel Goleman, author of Emotional Intelligence, Working with Emotional Intelligence, and co-author of Primal Leadership, creating an awareness of the contrast that exists between traditional training approaches and self-directed learning as we pursue leadership development. The emotional intelligence premise is overviewed and linked to the discussion of demonstrating a return on investment in our organizations as we deploy training programs to impact performance. The author contends that our traditional deployment of leadership development/communication skills training fails to produce sustainable change in behaviors and supports Goleman's initiatives to invest in the emotional intelligence of leaders with individualized plans to impact the climate and performance of an organization. (Source: journal abstract)

• de-Charon, L. (2003). A transformational leadership development program: Jungian psychological types in dynamic flux. Organization Development Journal, 21(3), 9-18.

This article synthesizes the lore of Jungian theory with the contemporary principles of transformational leadership. Based on this theoretical alignment, individuals are inherently prepared to meet only half of the requirements for effective leadership. The other half should be attained through leadership training. (Source: journal abstract)

• Densten, I. & Gray, J. (2001). Leadership development and reflection: What is the connection? International Journal of Educational Management, 15(3), 119-24.

Examines how leadership development can be improved by encouraging leaders to engage in critical reflection. Discusses how students can enhance their leadership ability through evaluating the significance of their experiences from a leadership perspective; using critical reflection, students studying leadership can explore, question, and describe their professional development. (Source: Eric Database)

• Drew, W, S. A., Davidson, & Alistair. (1993). Simulation-based leadership development and team learning. The Journal of Management Development, 12(8), 39.

A growing interest in organizational learning has been precipitated by the need for dramatic change and strategic renewal in many institutions. "Learning laboratories" or "microworlds" have been suggested as a means of enhancing learning through experience. As costs of technology decline and software becomes increasingly accessible, the use of customized computer simulations in microworlds will become feasible for many management development programs. As part of a leadership development program for a North American telecommunications company, a managerial simulation and microworld were constructed to promote learning, teamwork and cooperation. The program sought to develop a new paradigm for competition in the industry and a new vision for the organization. The program was unique in that the success of the microworld was measured and systematically evaluated. A significant effect on improved cooperation, individual and group learning was found. (Source: journal abstract)

• Dunn, A. G., & Pope, S. (2001). Leadership development which delivers results. Industrial and Commercial Training, 33(6/7), 220.

This paper describes a program of leadership development which has been developed and delivered by an organization development specialist and a senior line manager. It offers a blend of soft and hard skills, academic and practical approaches, and learning partnerships which use participants' own experience to reinforce the relevance of learning. The program aims to offer participants more choices and flexibility about how they tackle not only tasks and situations, but also more importantly relationships - handling people differently. It also provides participants with opportunities to explore their own values and identity as leaders. The program is appropriate for team development, preparing for management of change and for helping individuals to work at the next higher level of management. It can readily be tailored to the needs of most groups. Quantitative and qualitative evidence of the results of the course are detailed. (Source: journal abstract)

• Eason, L. A., & Slater, R. (1991). Creating a Leadership Development Program for Business and Community Leaders. Economic Development Review, 9(3) 72.

The Area Resource Development Program (ARDP) in west central Georgia was created by volunteers from local business and industrial firms and governmental and educational institutions. The ARDP program was designed to accomplish 4 major objectives: 1. to encourage business, industry, governmental organizations, and providers of educational services to use previously overlooked local resources, 2. to create closer bonds among local colleges, local governments, and the business and industrial community, 3. to encourage transient industrial leadership to become established in the local community, and 4. to broaden and strengthen the pool of future business and community leaders. (Source: journal abstract)

• Fulmer, R. M., Gibbs, P. A., & Goldsmith, M. (1999). The new HP way: Leveraging strategy with diversity, leadership development and decentralization. Strategy & Leadership, 27(6), 21.

A case study of how Hewlett-Packard is changing its culture under the direction of its new chief executive Carly Fiorina is presented. Fiorina says her challenge is to make sure HP represents the next century rather than the last one. To prepare for the future, company leaders saw the need to create a "New HP Way." Under the new way, all HP employees - but especially managers - must be leaders who generate enthusiasm and respond with extra effort to meet customer needs. They must personally accept responsibility and are encouraged to upgrade their skills and capabilities through ongoing training and development. Some of the characteristics of the new HP Way may seem natural progressions today, but they would have been hard to believe years ago and, in fact, still pose problems in some parts of HP's global empire. (Source: journal abstract)

• Furr, S. R., & Lutz, J. R. (1987). Emerging Leaders: Developing leadership potential. Journal of College Student Personnel, 28(1), 86-87.

Describes an Emerging Leaders program for University of North Carolina, Charlotte, freshmen that is designed to build leadership skills, enhance involvement in extracurricular activities, increase awareness of campus resources, and provide placement of trained student leaders. Of 21 participants who completed the program, 19 had held at least 1 elected office at the 3-yr follow-up, and all had participated in an average of 8.9 activities. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Graham, S., & Robinson, D. (2002). Leadership development in organizational consulting. Lowman, Rodney L (Ed). The California School of Organizational Studies: Handbook of organizational consulting psychology: A comprehensive guide to theory, skills, and techniques, p. 370-395. San Francisco, CA, US: Jossey-Bass.

This chapter provides an introduction to leadership development. It focuses on challenges inherent in leadership development, integrating the development activities with the organizational climate, and the role of the consultant. Conceptual frameworks describing organizational and leadership theories are offered to provide a basis for consulting psychologists to understand the various leadership development perspectives. The chapter offers specific suggestions on how consultants can work with various organizations to design an ongoing leadership development process that can be sustained over time. (from the chapter)

• Guido DiBrito, F., & Batchelor, S. W. (1988). Developing leadership potential through student activities and organizations. New Directions for Student Services, No 44: 51-62.

Argues that leadership development in female students through co-curricular activities must stress individual, organizational, and institutional growth. A model of leadership development by F. H. Freeman et al (1987) is outlined, and relevant issues for women in leadership roles are noted. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Harland, L. (2003). Using personality tests in leadership development: Test format effects and the mitigating impact of explanations and feedback. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14(3), 285-301.

Organizations using personality tests in management development programs must choose from an array of personality tests and formats. The most common formats are normative (for example, Likert type) and forced choice. Although there are some potential advantages to using the forced-choice format for development, it is possible that participants may view the forced-choice format more negatively than the normative format. Hypothesis I proposed that participants would initially view the forced-choice format as less accurate, less respectful, less useful, and providing less test taker control. Hypothesis 2 proposed that an explanation of forced-choice format benefits would mitigate initial negative reactions. Finally, hypothesis 3 proposed that receiving test feedback would mitigate negative perceptions of forced-choice format accuracy and usefulness. The participants, 255 part-time M.B.A. students in a leadership development course, were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions: normative, forced choice with an explanation, and forced choice with no explanation. (Source: journal abstract)

• Hohmann, M., Hawker, D., & Hohmann, C. (1982). Group process and adolescent leadership development. Adolescence, 17(67), 613-620.

Presents an approach to leadership development--the leader-member approach--that is particularly supportive of the needs of adolescents and reflective of a democratic style of leadership. It is an outgrowth of the High/Scope Summer Workshop for Teenagers, which has helped young people acquire leadership skills through group membership and the dynamics of cooperation. Strategies for group and leadership development are discussed. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Hughes, M. S. (1988). Developing leadership potential for minority women. New Directions for Student Services, No 44: 63-75.

Offers recommendations for increasing the participation of minority (Hispanic, Black, Asian, Native American) women on college faculty and staff positions and for enhancing the leadership development of female minority students. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Kesner, I. F. (2003). HBR Case Study: Leadership development: Perk or priority? Harvard Business Review, 81(5), 29.

In a fictional case study, Karen Barton, Zendal Pharmaceuticals' senior vice president of human resources, became livid when COO Dave Palmer slashed her executive education budget by 75%. It must have been a mistake, Barton thought. Without funding there could be no in-house leadership development program, which was to be the first step toward a full-blown Zendal University. But it was not a mistake. Not that Palmer was against bold initiatives, but, as he patiently told Barton, sales were down 26%, and there was that $300 million debt Zendal took on when it acquired Premier Pharmaceuticals. Figuring ROI for people is not the same as calculating the payback from a machine, Barton complained. She needed to make the case that doubling her budget was a smart move even in tough times. The question was, How? Several consultants offer their advice on how Barton should convince Palmer that cutting her budget is the wrong move. (Source: journal abstract)

• Kincaid,S., & Gordick, D. (2003). The return on investment of leadership development: Differentiating our discipline. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 55 (1), 47-57.

Consulting psychologists seem to rely less on empirical research to inform and guide their efforts than other sources of information (J. Blanton, 2000), even though this research base is a potential discriminator in an increasingly competitive, sophisticated, and cost-conscious marketplace. This finding may be because existing research does not provide consulting psychologists or clients with the results they desire: a clear value proposition for affecting the financial state of clients. The authors review the limited meso-level research and conclude that consulting psychology can create a financial impact. Continued efforts to study, document, and disseminate the "developmental return on investment" of consulting psychology should become a means of differentiating consulting psychologists from other service providers. (Source: journal abstract)

• Kezar, A., & Moriarty, D. (2000). Expanding our understanding of student leadership development: A study exploring gender and ethnic identity. Journal of College Student Development, 41(1), 55-69.

The authors propose that student affairs practitioners need to rethink some of the key assumptions of their leadership development models and practices in order to meet the needs of a changing student body. The study is based on the Cooperative Institutional Research Program 1987 Freshman Survey and 1991 follow up. The sample included 9,731 students at 352 institutions. The study examined factors influencing leadership development among college students, focusing specifically on potential differences for women and African Americans as opposed to male Caucasian Ss. Dependent variables studied were: (a) entering leadership ability self-rating and self-rating of leadership-related qualities, (b) communication skills, (c) self-confidence, and (d) ability to influence others. The effects of the dependent variables on both positional and non-position leadership experiences were assessed. The results of this study illustrate that different strategies are necessary for the development of leadership among a diverse group of students. Specific extracurricular and co-curricular programs are recommended for meeting these needs. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Klagge, J. (1997). Leadership development needs of today's organizational managers. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 18(7), 355.

It is revealed that the need to develop leadership capacity among organizational managers has been on the increase since the early 1990s. Two of the major factors generating this need are the advent of the quality movement with its dependence on teams, and the widespread incidence of organizational flattening that has eliminated many middle management positions. Today's organizational managers need leadership skills to develop high performing teams and to cover the wider spans of control left in the wake of downsizing. This paper presents the experience of one quality-conscious, downsized, team-based organization as a case study on leadership development needs among today's beleaguered managers. (Source: journal abstract)

• Kolb, J. A. (1999). The effect of gender role, attitude toward leadership, and self-confidence on leader emergence: Implications for leadership development. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10(4) 305.

Leadership continues to be described in stereotypically masculine terms, although some evidence exists that an androgynous leadership style also may be related to perceptions of leadership. This study examined whether self-perceptions of masculine gender role characteristics would predict individuals who were perceived by others as leaders on a team project and if other self-report measures might be used instead to predict leadership. Results indicate that both attitude toward leadership and leadership experience were stronger predictors of leader emergence than masculine gender role. (Source: journal abstract)

• Kur, E., & Bunning, R.. (1996). A three-track process for executive leadership development. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 17(4), 4-12.

Describes a 3-track process for executive leadership development (TTL) intended to develop a cadre of strategic business leaders for the next decade. TTL consists of 3 simultaneous tracks of activity requiring as much as 18 months, during which participants also perform their regular jobs. It has 3 objectives, corresponding to the tracks of activity: the business track - solves real-life business problems thereby supporting the business while providing each individual participant with increased expertise in an area previously unknown to him or her; the leadership track - enables participants to lead individuals, groups and organizations more effectively; and the personal track - helps participants to lead individuals, groups and organizations more effectively; and the personal track - helps participants appreciate and more effectively utilize their innate personal skills, values, predispositions and traits. Examines results to date and shows that this leadership development process has already provided substantial returns to many individuals and organizations. (Source: journal abstract)

• Leonard, H. (2003). Leadership development for the postindustrial, postmodern information age. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 55(1), 3-14.

The requirements for leadership change in contemporary organizations have changed significantly in the past several decades. This article traces the evolution of leadership research in the 20th century and examines the relationship between emerging theory and changes in the organizational structure, work processes and procedures, and talent pools required for organizations to be successful in the postindustrial, postmodern, and information age. Implications for future leadership theory and leadership development are also discussed. (Source: journal abstract)

• Leonard, H., & Goff, M. (2003). Leadership development as an intervention for organizational transformation: A case study. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 55(1), 58-67.

Increasingly, client organizations are interested in accomplishing organizational transformation and personal development goals in implementing leadership development goals. A case study in which these dual goals were explicitly stated is presented. In addition to a description of the various components of the program, outcomes research data are presented to assess the effectiveness of the program in achieving the organizational and individual development goals. No changes in individual skills or behavior were obtained. Numerous methodological explanations are advanced to explain the lack of improvement at the individual level. Evidence is presented to support the conclusion that significant improvement in organizational functioning was achieved as a result of this program. (Source: journal abstract)

• Manning, T., & Robertson, B. (2002). The dynamic leader - leadership development beyond the visionary leader. Industrial and Commercial Training, 34(4/5), 137.

Describes the background behind the development of a new leadership self-assessment instrument, the dynamic leader inventory and how the authors were able to confirm much current thinking on “visionary” leadership. They found leadership situations were enormously variable - what was appropriate behaviour in terms of visionary leadership varied from one situation to another, particularly with respect to the leader's influence over others and influence over change. This led to the development of a new model of leadership, the “dynamic” leader which builds on, but goes beyond, the "visionary" model. This development is explained and a framework is outlined, identifying four types of leadership situations. Findings have clear implications for thinking about leadership and for the practice of leadership development. (Source: journal abstract)

• McAlearney, A. (2006). Leadership development in healthcare: a qualitative study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(7), 967-982.

Challenges associated with leading a $1.7 trillion industry have created a need for strong leaders at all levels in healthcare organizations. However, despite growing support for the importance of leadership development practices across industries, little is known about leadership development in healthcare organizations. An extensive qualitative study comprised of 35 expert interviews and 55 organizational case studies included 160 in-depth, semi-structured interviews and explored this issue. Across interviews, several themes emerged around leadership development challenges that were particularly salient to healthcare organizations. Informants described how the relative newness of leadership development practices in a majority of healthcare organizations contributes to an overall perception of haphazard practices throughout the industry. In addition, respondents noted challenges associated with developing leaders who would be representative of the patient community served, and commented on the pressure to segregate different professional groups for leadership development. Framed by these challenges, I propose a conceptual model of commitment to leadership development in healthcare organizations as influenced by three factors—strategy, culture, and structure. These, in turn, influence program design decisions and can impact organizational effectiveness. In the context of inherently complex healthcare organizations where leaders must respond to multiple stakeholders and meet performance goals across multiple dimensions of effectiveness, addressing these reported challenges and considering the importance of organizational commitment to leadership development can help ensure that programs are effectively designed, delivered, and sustained. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Moore, K. M., & Amey, M. J. (1988). Some faculty leaders are born women. New Directions for Student Services, No 44: 39-50.

Discusses the roles and responsibilities that female college faculty have in developing women as student leaders. It is suggested that faculty-student relationships, women's studies, and mentoring may provide avenues for leadership development in women faculty and students. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Morgan, G. (1996). Creating a local leadership development program. Economic Development Review, 14(1), 36.

Setting up a Leadership Program can be a worthwhile and rewarding experience for all constituencies. For those on the development team, comprehensive research of existing programs and appropriate tailoring to meet the needs of the new program are mandatory. Guidelines for communities wishing to initiate community leadership programs include: 1. Recruit early. 2. Develop team building. 3. Begin an alumni association the first year. 3. Utilize "real" versus "hypothetical" problem-solving. 4. Commit to utilizing sponsorships to assist in meeting session expenses. 5. Expect honest feedback. 6. Establish standards and stick to them. 7. Commit to national and state association membership. 8. Be aggressive and assertive. (Source: journal abstract)

• Mudgett, W. C., Hunsaker, P. L., & Wynne, B. E. (1975). A tactical pacification game for leadership development. Psychological Reports, 36(2) 439-445.

The structure of the Tactical Pacification Game is described and applications for evaluating and developing leadership competence are explained. Relevant research paradigms and specially developed measurement instruments are presented as they relate to the study of leadership and decision making. Examples of current and future applications of the simulation are presented. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Murrell, H, P., Walsh, & P, J. (1993). Leadership development at Federal Express Corporation. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 4(3), 295.

In 1984, several top officers of the Federal Express Corp. concluded that the corporation was doing a fine job of preparing its managers to perform all the traditional functions of management. They determined, however, that a key element of the corporation's continued success was not being addressed: preparing managers to be effective leaders as well. The Federal Express Leadership Institute was founded in April 1984 to fill the need for leadership development. The institute helps managers acquire the knowledge and skills to become better managers by: 1. providing activities that engage learners in concrete experience, 2. having them reflect on their experiences and share their reactions, 3. assisting them in developing larger abstractions and principles through the use of authoritative information, and 4. encouraging them to use the new information as a guide in further action. (Source: journal abstract)

• Noel, J. L., &, Charan, R. (1988). Leadership Development at GE's Crotonville. Human Resource Management, 27(4) 433.

To provide managers with a high-impact, multifunctional, global business team experience, the Management Development Institute of General Electric (GE), has fundamentally revamped its 4-week executive program, the Business Management Course (BMC). The core concept is "action learning," a form of business experiential learning. The BMC design refocuses and redefines this concept. Managers are taken out of their traditional environments temporarily and teamed with peers. The groups are challenged to solve some of the most vexing problems facing GE businesses. Nationally recognized business educators help the BMC managers prepare for the project and evaluate the results. The benefits to the company go beyond the lessons learned in teamwork, business strategy, and leadership. One group found the potential for $200 million in additional annual sales. Clearly, one of the biggest dividends is to the business; managers return with an enhanced leadership capacity. (Source: journal abstract)

• Oddou, G., Mendenhall, M. E., & Ritchie, J. B. (2000). Leveraging travel as a tool for global leadership development. Human Resource Management, 39(2/3), 159.

Short-term business travel is an underutilized method for developing some of the skills that are necessary to be a global leader. International business travel can place executives in situations where they can develop global mindsets; however, most executives cocoon themselves during international trips and wind up wasting opportunities to enhance their global skills. When properly designed, international-business travel can be leveraged as a strategic management development tool. Throughout the article, case examples are given to illustrate how international travel can aid in developing global leadership skills. (Source: journal abstract)

• Ouellette, P. M., Lazear, K., & Chambers, K. (1999). Action leadership: The development of an approach to leadership enhancement for grassroots community leaders in children's mental health. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 26(2), 171.

It is believed that effective systems of care for children and families will not be adequate until more parents and community residents are involved in all phases of systems development. Consequently, the need for the development of leadership models that enhance the involvement of grassroots community leaders is crucial. A summary of a research team's preliminary experience in developing an "action leadership" model that empowers grassroots community leaders toward action is presented. The team discovered that leadership enhancement and development of grassroots community leaders is not a static skill attribute of an individual but rather is acquired through a dynamic process in which both the facilitator of a community leadership initiative and its natural leaders are active participants in a shared learning and change experience. (Source: journal abstract)

• Pheng, Sui, L., Lee, & S.K, B. (1997). East meets West: leadership development for construction project management. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 12(6), 383.

It is the contention of this paper that much more could be gained if Western management wisdom could be cross-fertilized with Chinese thinking and philosophies. The aim of this paper is to examine how leadership for construction project management can be developed by relating Zhuge Liang's Art of Management to the “managerial grid” propounded by two management theorists from the West, namely Blake and Mouton. It also seeks to examine the basic principles of the ancient Art of Management and the managerial grid with criteria established for the effective project manager and project management team. (Source: journal abstract)

• Polley, R. B., & Eid, J. (1990). Leadership training on the Bergen Fjord: A case study and evaluation. Group and Organization Studies, 15(2), 192-211.

After working together in 6-person teams for 1 yr, 24 Norwegian naval cadets participated in a 4-day outdoor training exercise. Interpersonal ratings were collected before and after, and performance data were collected in the field. The ratings predicted leader and group effectiveness, and the exercise had substantial effects on team and leadership development. A case example illustrates one team's objective social field. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Popper, M., & Lipshitz, R. (1993). Putting leadership theory to work: A conceptual framework for theory-based leadership development. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 14(7), 23.

A conceptual framework is provided that relates leadership development to theories of leadership. The framework suggests that programs of leadership development should include 3 components: 1. developing self-efficacy in the domain of leadership, 2. developing awareness of different modes of motivating others in correspondence with different theories of leadership, and 3. developing specific leadership skills. Developing transactional leadership requires the enhancement of trainees' awareness of the different aspects of the transactions that take place between leaders and followers. Effective transactional leaders are sensitive diagnosticians who are able to match different situations with appropriate motivating strategies. Six modes of learning are: 1. emulation of a mentor, 2. role learning, 3. learning through doing, 4. learning by validation, 5. learning of concepts, and 6. personal growth. (Source: journal abstract)

• Posner, B. Z., & Brodsky, B. (1992). A leadership development instrument for college students. Journal of College Student Development, 33(3), 231-237.

Describes the development of the student version of the Leadership Practices Inventory (SLPI), an instrument designed to enable college students to measure their own leadership capability. The SLPI was evaluated in a study involving 304 student leaders. A factor analysis revealed 2 factors encompassing internal and external effectiveness. Internal reliabilities for each of these factors or scales were strong, and each effectiveness scale was significantly correlated with the single-item global effectiveness scale. Data confirm the hypothesis that effective vs. less effective student leaders vary in their leadership practices as measured by the SLPI. The SLPI can help identify and specify areas for cultivating the personal skills necessary to be an effective student leader. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Prewitt, V. (2003). Leadership development for learning organizations. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 24(1/2), 58.

While discussions of the learning organization (LO) often center on nuances of its definition and application, little attention has been given to the role that organizational leaders play in fostering goals of becoming an LO. Varied research indicates that leaders may play the single most important role in determining the success or failure of LO efforts, with trust, modeled behaviors, and positive reinforcement critical to gaining worker acceptance and support. This paper recommends that, to improve chances of success, organizations should first attend to developing learning leaders before implementing any LO efforts. Leaders in senior management positions must understand the significance of their own behavior in the value placed on learning and realign their assumptions about productive work to support continuous learning and development.

• Propst, D. B., & Koesler, R. A. (1998). Bandura goes outdoors: Role of self-efficacy in the outdoor leadership development process. Leisure Sciences, 20(4), 319-344.

Studied benefits of participation in outdoor leadership (ODL) programs and factors that contributed to continued participation in ODL development activities. Study objectives were to assess short- and long-term (1-yr) effects of ODL programs on self-efficacy (SE) and to evaluate a proposed path model of SE and continued participation in ODL development activities. The proposed model specified relationships among feedback, goal attainment, mentoring, SE, and continued participation in ODL programs. Ss were 231 ODL program participants and 86 wait-list controls (all Ss aged 15-55 yrs). There was a significant effect of treatment (i.e., participation in ODL programs) on immediate and long-term SE. The full path model was not significant. However, a post hoc division of the path model by gender revealed distinct processes for men and women. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Ready, D. A., & Conger, J. A. (2003). Why leadership-development efforts fail. MIT Sloan Management Review, 44(3), 83.

Large investments in leadership development often do not pay off because of what is identified as 3 pathologies: 1. the "ownership is power" mind-set, 2. the tendency for leadership ideas to be treated as undifferentiated products, and 3. the focus on metrics that do not link programs to business results. Some companies, such as IBM, have successfully avoided these "diseases." IBM's line managers are held accountable for leadership development. They know they will not be considered for senior executive positions unless they have demonstrated skill in developing leaders. Companies that excel at building leaders do not rush to buy quick-fix products, they know that panaceas are a myth, and they invest in process excellence rather than a multitude of programs. By securing top team commitment, line management engagement and first-rate professional staff support in a system of shared ownership and accountability, they can avoid the ownership-is-power mentality. (Source: journal abstract)

• Robertson, J., & Webber, C. (2000). Cross-cultural leadership development. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 3 (4 ), 315-30.

Examines the Boundary Breaking Leadership Development model's applicability to a cross-cultural travel study program for Canada and New Zealand graduate students in two university educational-administration programs. Evidence found in students' journals, field notes, reflective commentaries, and survey data revealed substantial emotional learning experiences and training insights. (Source: ERIC database)

• Sagaria, M. D., & Koogle, L. L. (1988). Greater than the sum of its parts: Strategy and resources. New Directions for Student Services, No 44: 89-103.

Describes a campus alliance model designed to create and maintain a network of individuals, campus units, and programs to foster leadership development and opportunities for women. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Sisk, D. A. (1988). A case for leadership development to meet the need for excellence in teachers and youth. Roeper Review, 11(1), 43-46.

Describes two programs that encourage leadership development: (1) an area teacher training program that encourages talented, academically competent students to enter teacher education programs and (2) a residential leadership training program for middle and high school students. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Tabb, M., & Montesi, C. (2000). A model for long-term leadership development among groups of diverse persons: The delta emerging leaders program. Journal of the Community Development Society, 31 (2), 331-47.

The Delta Emerging Leaders Program prepares effective leaders for the Mississippi Delta region using the underlying principles of interracial contact, common goals, interpersonal association, and learner responsibility. Strategies for creating change include leadership characteristics and commitment, understanding of tradition, action orientation, grassroots goal setting, networks, empowerment, and ethics. (Source: ERIC database)

• Taffinder, P. (2006). High impact leadership [leadership development]. Engineering Management, 16(4), 22-24.

This paper addresses the issue of how to assess and develop leadership by answering two key questions: how organizations should identify potential leaders in their engineering ranks and what they should be looking for; and how individual engineering professionals should assess their own leadership and then develop it.

• Tarley, M. (2002). Leadership development for small organizations. T+D, 56 (3), 52-55.

Discusses how a small to mid-sized organization can create a leadership development program using the same approach that is used in large companies like General Electric. Identifies the factors that can transfer successfully to smaller organizations. (Source: ERIC database)

• Trehan, Kiran (2007). Psychodynamic and Critical Perspectives on Leadership Development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 9(1), 72-82.

The article focuses on leadership development from a psychodynamic and critical point of view. An examination is made on how important HRD and psychoanalytic processes can be harnessed to provide growth and learning through reflection. The investigation finds that psychodynamic processes involve the examination of cultural and political processes that affect the development process which enable one to move and accept the complexity of leadership of development.

• Vinnicombe, S., & Singh, V. (2003). Women-only management training: An essential part of women's leadership development. Journal of Change Management, 3(4), 294-306.

A change is needed in the way companies approach leadership development, which currently results in the reproduction of male leaders similar to those of the previous generation. At present, many women do not develop to their full potential--a serious waste in the war for talent. Managing diversity and developing tomorrow's diverse leaders are key tasks for leadership in UK organizations. This paper considers the important role of women-only training in the development of the females in the next generation of leaders, and in the enhancement of their careers. The paper explores the impact of gendered development processes and women's particular developmental needs. The authors believe that in addition to, and not as a substitute for, other leadership courses and support mechanisms such as mentoring and coaching, women-only training enables women to clarify their leadership ambitions, recognize their leadership strengths, and access leadership positions. Organizations that support such learning experiences will benefit from a wider and stronger pool of talent than before. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Voci, E., & Young, K. (2001). Blended learning working in a leadership development programme. Industrial and Commercial Training, 33(4/5), 157.

Blended learning is a concept that has emerged with the onset of e-learning, or learning that is delivered across the Internet. This type of learning combines more traditional methods of teaching - such as instructor-led classes held in a physical classroom - with Internet-delivered content that is learner-driven and self-paced. This article looks briefly at the benefits of instructor-led training and e-learning, and describes the key elements of a learning organisation. It goes on to explain how e-learning was effectively incorporated into a six-month leadership development programme at a global organisation of 3,000 employees to enhance the instructor-led content and overall programme results. Such results included an increased sense of teamwork and camaraderie, establishment of common concepts and language, and greater efficiency in "jump-starting" group learning. (Source: journal abstract)

• Watkins, C. (2000). The leadership programme for serving headteachers: Probably the world's largest leadership development initiative. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 21(1/2) 13.

Education, education, education! That was New Labour's priority when it came to government in the UK. How has it fared since? This article provides some information on how such statements were translated into action. It is written from both practitioner and academic perspectives, highlighting the impact psychology-based research findings have had on educational attainment. In applying a model of excellence, the Leadership Development Programme for Serving Headteachers (LPSH) aimed to meet two key objectives: 1. personal leadership development and 2. school improvement. Initial independent evaluations, by staff from the Open University, Canterbury Christ Church University College and the University of Nottingham, have provided overwhelmingly positive results for feedback into LPSH for continuous improvement. The analysis indicates that high-achieving schools have headteachers who score higher on the characteristics of excellence; use more leadership styles and score higher on the CSI (climate) dimensions than headteachers from schools in "special measures." (Source: journal abstract)

• Willie, C. V. (1984). Leadership development programs for minorities: An evaluation. Urban Review, 16(4), 209-217.

Investigated 4 leadership-development programs for minorities to determine program effectiveness when operated by a minority- or a majority-group-controlled agency, when consisting of internships only or internships and an educational component, or when operated as an internship and educational program by an educational institution or by a free-standing voluntary association. It is concluded that the most effective program is one that has an educational component, an internship, and is offered by a college or university. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Wright, A., & Cote, J. (2003). A retrospective analysis of leadership development through sport. Sport Psychologist, 17(3), 268-291.

The purpose of this study was to examine the development of six leader-athletes. In-depth qualitative interviews were used to explore the various activities that leader athletes engaged in from an early age as well as the roles and influences that peers, coaches, and parents played within these activities. Results indicated that leadership development in sport focused on developing four central components: high skill, strong work ethic, enriched cognitive sport knowledge, and good rapport with people. The types of activities engaged in throughout development as well as receiving feedback, acknowledgement, support, cognitive engagement, mature conversations with adults, and physical encounters with older peers are important social influences that can play an instrumental role in the formation of these four central tenets. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Young, J. L. (1986). Developing nontraditional leaders. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 14(3), 108-115.

Addresses the need for college students to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to assume leadership roles at different levels in the American system. A paradigm is presented for use in the procedural leadership development of college students who are members of nontraditional leadership populations (e.g., women, Blacks, functionally disabled individuals, and the elderly), and individuals with minimal leadership experience. The paradigm is based on a developmental college course and includes personal, affilial group, and diverse group leadership development perspectives. Skills taught include self-awareness, self-growth, and self-actualization; affilial group identification and support; and awareness, recognition, and respect for and mutuality with diverse groups. (Source: PsycINFO Database Record)

• Zimmerman-Oster, K. & Burkhardt, J. (2000). Leadership in the making: Impact and insights from leadership development programs in U.S. colleges and universities. Executive Summary. Kellogg Foundation, Battle Creek, MI.

Between 1990 and 1998, the W.K. Kellogg Foundation funded 31 projects focused on leadership development in college-age young adults. This summary report presents an overview of the results from an external retrospective evaluation of approximately 60 percent of the funded projects, primarily those based in higher education institutions. It begins by describing the evaluation methodology, followed by a description of the evaluation outcomes from four components: (1) archival review, survey, interviews, and site visits; (2) grantee evaluation results; (3) short-term impact evaluation (the Penn State Erie Evaluation Project); and (4) long-term impact evaluation (the UCLA Higher Education Research Institute Analysis). The report then discusses the hallmarks of exemplary projects, grouped into four categories: context, philosophy, sustainability, and common practices. Examples of exemplary projects are also included. (Source: ERIC database).